Things to remember when dealing with SCIENCE

WHO IS THE MAJOR CONTRIBUTOR THAT INSPIRED ME MOST?

Karl Popper is generally regarded as one of the greatest philosophers of science of the 20th century. He was also a social and political philosopher of considerable stature, a self-professed ‘critical-rationalist’, a dedicated opponent of all forms of scepticism, conventionalism, and relativism in science and in human affairs generally, a committed advocate and staunch defender of the ‘Open Society’, and an implacable critic of totalitarianism in all of its forms. One of the many remarkable features of Popper's thought is the scope of his intellectual influence. In the modern technological and highly-specialised world scientists are rarely aware of the work of philosophers; it is virtually unprecedented to find them queuing up, as they have done in Popper's case, to testify to the enormously practical beneficial impact which that philosophical work has had upon their own. But notwithstanding the fact that he wrote on even the most technical matters with consummate clarity, the scope of Popper's work is such that it is commonplace by now to find that commentators tend to deal with the epistemological, scientific and social elements of his thought as if they were quite disparate and unconnected, and thus the fundamental unity of his philosophical vision and method has to a large degree been dissipated. Here we will try to trace the threads which interconnect the various elements of his philosophy, and which give it its fundamental unity.

Falsifiability or refutability is the logical possibility that an assertion could be shown false by a particular observation or physical experiment. That something is "falsifiable" does not mean it is false; rather, it means that if the statement were false, then its falsehood could be demonstrated.For example, "no human lives forever" is not falsifiable since it does not seem possible to prove wrong. In theory, one would have to observe a human living forever to falsify that claim. In contrast, "All humans live forever" is falsifiable: the presentation of just one dead human could prove the statement wrong. Importantly, we may never find a dead human if that claim is true, but regardless that claim is falsifiable because we can at least imagine a finding that would prove it wrong. Some statements are only falsifiable in theory, while others are even falsifiable in practice (i.e. testable). For example, "it will be raining here in one billion years" is theoretically falsifiable, but not practically so.Falsifiability, particularly testability, is an important concept in science and the philosophy of science. The concept was made popular by Karl Popper in his philosophical analysis of the scientific method. Popper concluded that a hypothesis, proposition, or theory is "scientific" only if it is, among other things, falsifiable. That is, falsifiability is a necessary (but not sufficient) criterion for scientific ideas. Popper asserted that unfalsifiable statements are non-scientific, although not without relevance. For example, meta-physical or religious propositions have cultural or spiritual meaning, and the ancient metaphysical and unfalsifiable idea of the existence of atoms has led to corresponding falsifiable modern theories. A falsifiable theory that has withstood severe scientific testing is said to be corroborated by past experience, though in Popper's view this is not equivalent with confirmation and does not guarantee that the theory is true or even partially true.Popper invented the notion of metaphysical research programs to name such ideas. In contrast to positivism, which held that statements are senseless if they cannot be verified or falsified, Popper claimed that falsifiability is merely a special case of the more general notion of criticizability. Still, he admitted that tests and refutation is one of the most effective methods by which theories can be criticized.

DIFFERENCES IN STYLE AND RESEARCH

There were still striking differences among leading nations regarding the circumstances and style of research.

• In Britain, there was a marked absence of institutions providing jobs for researchers.
• In Germany, the natural sciences shared in the rise and size and prestige of the university system.
• 1856 William Henry Perkin - synthetic dyestuffs.

Progress in Physics

• Hans Christian Oersted 1819 - electric current produces a magnetic field.
• Michael Faraday 1831 - reverse effect
• Joseph Henry - built the first powerful electromagnets and invented the electric motor.
• James Prescott Joule - first law of thermodynamics
• Wilhelm Roentgen - X-ray
• Marie Curie - gave the name "radioactivity"

Progress in Chemistry

• Friedrich Wohler - prepared urea in a test tube from inorganic starting materials.
• Baron Justos Von Leibig - chemical fertilizers
• Gustav Robert Kirchoff and Robert Wilhelm Bunsen - spectograph
• Dmitri Mendeleev - systemic and periodic arrangement

Progress in Astronomy

• Sir William Herschel 1781 - Uranus did not precisely moved in its expected orbit.
• Urbair JJ. Leverrier - neptune

Progress in Biology

• Karl Ernst Von Baer - embryology
• Charles Darwin 1859 - origin of species
• Gregor Mendel 1866 - the pattern of inheritance of characteristics from one generation of sweet peas to another.

Progress in Medicine

• William Morton, Charles Jackson, Crawton Lon, Sir James Simpson - Anesthetics
  
• Louis Pasteur - methods of immunizing people
• Joseph Lister - antiseptic surgery
• Walter Reed 1901 - yellow fever is caused by a virus carried by mosquitoes.

SCIENCE DURING RENAISSANCE

Establishment of Academias

• The Academia Dei Lencei in Rome ( 1603-1630 )
• The Academia Del Cimiento in Florence ( 1657-1667 )
• The Royal society in London (1662 )
• The Academic Des Science in Paris ( 1662 )

Books and Journals

• Journal Des Savants of Paris ( 1665 )
• Acta Ervditorium of Leipzig (1682 )

Great Treatises

• Principia mathematica of Sir Isaac Newton ( 1687 )
• Traite De La Lumiereo of Christian huygens ( 1690 )

Remarkable Scientists

• Johann Gutenberg ( 1450 ) - the invention of printing press.
• German Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa (1402-64 ) - the latin exponent of the value of experiment.
• Nicholas Copernicus ( 1403 ) - developed the heliocentric theory using scientific method.
• Leonardo Da Vinci ( 1452-1514 ) -considered as the great artist of his time.
• Andres Versalius ( 1514-1564 ) - founder of modern human technology.

THE NEW STATUS OF GREEK SCIENCE

Medieval thought on the material world was essentially based on Greeks, specially Plato and Aristotle.

• Simon Stevinous - introduced the decimal fraction.
• Galileo Galilei - made the telescope ( 1564- 1642 )
• Johannes Kepler - theorized about the movement of the planet ( 1591-1630 )
• Rene Descartes - inventor of the graph who believed in the God Existence.
• Paracelsus - alchemist and physician of the renaissance.
• Francis Bacon - improved scientific method.
• Sir Isaac Newton - discovered the gravity.

EUROPEAN SCIENCE

Owes its past success and its special characteristic, its sharing, in the metaphysics and method.
The basic features european society were aggressive individualism tempered by principle of cooperation for a common good.

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

An industrial revolution began that transform Europe from Agrarian to an Urban society towards the end of the 18th century.

CHINESE SCIENCE

BRIEF HISTORY

There has been more or less continuous contact between Europe and China since classical Greek times in spite of the distances between them and their totally different language.

Usually the connection was indirect and restricted to trade in luxury goods.

But even in the classical times there were curious synchronism in philosophical movements in Europe and China

Silk road- an ancient trade routine linking China with Rome.

Important Persons

• Marco Polo- whose account of his travels and experiences offered European a firsthand view of Asian lands and Stimulated interests in Asian trade.
• Zu Chongzhi- mathematician who calculated "pi" to the 7th digit.
• Liu Ju-hsieh- mathematician who discovered "Pascal's Triangle"
• Tao Ch'ien- famous poet and philosopher who influenced the ideaof "elixir of life".

Great Inventions

1. magnetic compass
2. printing press
3. gun powder
4. paper making

Astronomy - first planetarium which was made by an emperor.

Stellar explosion that took place in the "Crab Nebula" in 1054.

Mathematics - Asian abacus, "pi" was calculated to the seventh digit, decimal system, Pascal's
Triangle

Military - Crossbows, poison gases, Bamboo-made cannons, Rockets

Medicine - "Elixir of life" potion, acupuncture, autopsy

While doing the ELIXIR OF LIFE...

Indian science

The Indian Civilization is about the oldest still alive, and it achieved the high level of technology at an early stage.

The history of science and technology in India begins with the prehistoric human activity in Mehrgarh or Pakistan and continues through the Indus Valley Civilization also known as the Bronze Age Civilization to the early state and empires.

The Science And Technology in India has something to do with the following field:

Agriculture

Indian Astrology

Zinc Metallurgy

Mathematics

AGRICULTURE

The Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization by around 4500 B.C. The size and prosperity of Indus Civilization grew as a result of this innovation, which eventually led to more planned settlements making use of drainage and sewers.

INDIAN ASTROLOGY

Indian Astronomical text named Vedanga Jyotisa dates back around 1200 B.C. It detailed several astronomical attributes generally applied for timing social and religious events.

In India there is a long established widespread beliefs in Astrology and it is commonly used for daily life.

Examples: With regards to marriage

With regards to career

With regards to election process

ZINC METALLURGY (refining metals)

• Zinc mines of Zawar were active during 400 B. C.
• Another important Indian contribution was in the Isolation, Distillation and use of Zinc. A major breakthrough in the history of metallurgy was India’s discovery of Zinc Distillation whereby the metal was vaporized and then condensed back into pure metal.
• Early Iron objects found in India can be dated to 1400 B. C. Some scholars believed that by the early 13^th century B.C. iron smelting was practiced on a bigger scale in India.
• Rust free steel was an Indian inventions and remained an Indian skill for centuries.

MATHEMATICS

• The use of Negative numbers was known in early India and their role insituation like mathematical problems of debt was understood.
• The Decimal number system originated in India. Other cultures discovered a few features of this number system which was compiled in India where it attained coherence and completion.

List of Indian Inventions and Discoveries

1. ATOMISM

The earliest reference to the concept of atoms date back to India in the 6^th century B.C.

According to Democritus:

The term “atomos” meaning uncuttable or the smallest indivisible particle of matter.

Dharmakirti and Dignaga

Indian philosophers and founder of Vaishehika School of atomism.

They considered atom to be:

1. point sized

2. dirationless

3. made of energy

2. CHANDRASEKHAR LIMIT AND NUMBERS

Discovered by the named after Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who received the novel prize in Physics for his work on stellar structure and stellar evolution.

3. UNIVERSE

The earliest known philosophical models of the universe are found in VEDAS, the earliest text on Indian philosophy dating back to the late 2^nd millennium B.C. They described COSMOLOGY in which the universe goes through repeated cycle of creation, destruction and rebirth.

4. INDIGO

Indigo was used as a dye in India, which was also a major center for its production and processing.

5. FIREARMS

By the 16^th century Indians were manufacturing a diverse variety of firearms: large guns in particular.

The Indian war rockets were formidable weapons before such rockets were used in Europe.

ISLAMIC SCIENCE

Islamic culture is the most relevant to European Science

GREEK-----ARABIC-----LATIN-----HEBREW

The Arabic culture and language spread afar: to Portugal in the west and to the frontiers of China in the East and over many degrees of latitude.

The most characteristic Arabic Scientific developments were in:

ALCHEMY

• Medieval chemical art whose principles objectives where to find the panacea and to transmute base metals into gold.

RHAZES

• Makes the earliest known suggestions for furnishing a chemical laboratory.
  

MATH

• Arabic numerals - an Indian system of numerical notation during the 19th century. It was invented in India passed through Persian to the Arabs, and was introduced in the Europe in the 10th century.
• Persian Mohammed IBN Alkhwarismi is the Persian Mohammed where from. He developed the process of vectification.

ASTRONOMY AND ASTROLOGY

• Constant preoccupation in the Islamic world. It was developed in Spain.
• Cordova- located in Southern Spain.
• Toledo- located in Central Spain.
• Toledan- tables of proposition were drawn up in 1080

The Ptolemic was replaced by this concentric system.

STONE AGE TECHNOLOGY

EARLIEST COMMUNITIES

• Lived almost entirely in the small nomadic communities.
• surviving on his skills in hunting and fishing.
• developed in tropical latitudes, especially in Africa.
• moved out hence into the subtropical regions and eventually into the landmass of Eurasia.

NEOLITIC REVOLUTION

• Increased in population
  
• Bigger communities
• Begginings of town life
• sometimes called as Neolithic Revolution

Primitive man used: wood, bone, fur, leaves, grasses

Stone

• material that gives its name and technology unity.
• became tools only when they were shaped delibarately for specific purposes and for this to be done efficiently.

Flint

• Became a very popular stone for this purpose, although fine sandstones and certain volcanic rocks were also widely used.

TOOLS AND WEAPONS

• stone headed spear
• the harpoon
• bow and arrow

OTHER DEVICES INVENTED

• Potter's Wheel, driven by kilks from the operator
• Wheels, gave continuous rotary movement in one direction
• Drill and the Lathe, derived from the bow and had the effect of spinning the drill piece.

FOOD PRODUCTION

• Paleolithic, gathering fishing and hunting
• Neolithic, agriculture, animal husbandry

BUILDING TECHNIQUES

• Impressive structure were created
• primarily tombs
• burial mounds and religious edifices
• sun-dried bricks for domestic housing

MANUFACTURING

• Grinding corn ( Quern ) - transport and communication
• Baking Clay ( Pottery)
• Spinning and weaving textiles
• Dyeing, fermenting and distilling
• gold, silver, copper, tin
• domestication of animals
• dugout canoe and brick-bark canoe

THE URBAN REVOLUTION ( 3000 - 5000 )

ASTRONOMY

Astronomy is a natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, nebulae, star clusters and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the Earth's atmosphere (such as the cosmic background radiation). It is concerned with the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects, as well as the formation and development of the universe.

Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences. Prehistoric cultures left behind astronomical artifacts such as the Egyptian monuments and Stonehenge, and early civilizations such as the Babylonians, Greeks, Chinese, and Indians performed methodical observations of the night sky. However, the invention of the telescope was required before astronomy was able to develop into a modern science. Historically, astronomy has included disciplines as diverse as astrometry, celestial navigation, observational astronomy, the making of calendars, and even astrology, but professional astronomy is nowadays often considered to be synonymous with astrophysics.

During the 20th century, astronomy split into two major categories:

physics technology
A B

A. OBSERVATIONAL ASTRONOMY

• Focused in acquiring data from observation which analized by the aids of basic principles of physics.

B. THEORETICAL ASTRONOMY

• Oriented towards the development computer or analytical models to described astronomical object and phenomena.

Some Contributions of Early Civilization

1. Babylonians

• Beggining of mathematical and scientific astronomy. They discovered the lunar eclipse recorded in repeating cycle known as a "caros".

2. Greeks (3rd B.C.)

• Aritarcus- calculated the mass of the earth and measures the distance and the size of the moon and star. He is also the first to proposed a heliocentric model of the solar system.
• Hipparchus- invented the first and the earliest known astronomical device such as the astrolabe.
  

Astrolabe

-Antiktheria mechanism (150 - 80 B.C.)- was an early analog computer designed to calculate of sun, moon, etc.

3. Persian

• Azophi- discovered the andromeda galaxy and described in his "book of fixed stars".

4. Egyptians

• ALI IBN RIDWAN- first observed the SN (supernova 1006). The brightest apparent magnitude stellar event recorded in the history.

PROGRESS IN GEOLOGY

GEOLOGY - IS THE SCIENCE AND STUDY OF THE PHYSICAL MATTER AND ENERGY THAT CONSTITUTE THE EARTH.

JEAN ANDRE DELUE &HORACE BENEDICT DE SAUSSURE

- WAS FIRST USED THE WORD GEOLOGY A GREEK WORD "GEO" WHICH MEANS EARTH AND "LOGOS" MEANING SPEECH.

ALFRED WEGENER: A GERMAN METEOROLOGIST PRESENTED THE THEORY OF "CONTINENTAL DRIFT"

THIS THEORY SUGGESTS THAT THE CONTINENTS WERE JOINED TOGETHER AT CERTAIN TIME IN THE PAST OF FORMED A SINGLE LANDMASS KNOWN AS "PANGEA"

PANGAEA DERIVED FROM THE GREEK WORD MEANING "ALL THE LANDS"

ROBERT S. DIETZ & HARRY H. HESS

- PROPOSED THE HYPOTHESIS OF SEAFLOOR SPREADING

DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIES

METALLURGY

• A DOMAIN OF MATERIALS SCIENCE THAT STUDIES THE PHYSICAL AND CHEMISTRY BEHAVIOR OF METALLIC ELEMENTS
• COMMONLY USED IN THE CRAFT OF METAL WORKING
• A MAJOR CHANGE WAS THE REPLACEMENT OF ORGANIC FUELS BASED ON WOOD WITH FOSSIL FUELS BASED ON COAL
• PRODUCTION OF CAST STEEL

IRON AND STEEL

• ABUNDANT CHEAP IRON
• CAST IRON WAS AVAILABLE FOR MECHANICAL DEVICES
• HENRY BESSEMER & SIEMERS MARTIN PROCESSES THAT HELP TO IMPROVE THE INDUSTRY

LOW GRADE INDUSTRIES

• S.G. THOMAS & PERCY GILCHRIST INVENTED THE SLOG
• DISCOVERY OF ALLOYS

STEAM BOAT AND SHIP

• ROBERT FULTON PROVED THE VALUE OF HIS SMOKE BELCHING INVENTION "THE CLERMONT STEAMBOAT"

WOMEN SCIENTISTS (MS. CACAOS)

EARLY CIVILIZATION

• MERIT PTAH- AN EGYPTIAN PHYSICIAN WHO CONTRIBUTED IN THE FIELD OF MEDICINE
• AGLAONIKE- STUDY NATURAL PHILOSOPHY IN ANCIENT GREECE, WHO PREDICTED ECLIPSES
• THEANO- MATHEMATICIAN AND PHYSICIAN WHO WAS A PUPIL OF PHYTAGORAS
• MERY THE JEWESS- IS CREDITED WITH INVENTING SEVERAL CHEMICAL INSTRUMENT INCLUDING THE DOUBLE BOILER AND A TYPE OF STILL
• HYPORTIA OF ALEXANDRIA - WROTE TEXTS ON GEOMETRY, ALGEBRA AND ASTRONOMY AND IS CREDITED INVENTORS INCLUDING A HYDROMETER AN ASTROLABE AND AN INSTRUMENT FOR DISTILLING WATER

SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION (16TH - 17TH CENTURY)

• MARGARET CAVENDISH - ARISTOCRATIC WOMAN. WROTE NUMBER OF VERSE ON SCIENTIFIC MATTERS INCLUDING OBSERVATIONS UPON EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOPHY.
• MARIA WINKELMANN - MADE SOME ORIGINAL CONTRIBUTIONS INCLUDING THE DISCOVERY OF A COMET

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (18TH CENTURY)

• EMILIE AU CHATELET- TRANSLATED NEWTONS PRINCIPLE INTO FRENCH AND DEDUCED THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
• MARIE ANNE PIERRETTE PALIZE - BEST KNOWN SCIENTIFIC WIVES
• CAROLINE HERCHEL- DISCOVERED EIGHT COMETS
• ELTEN SWALLOW RICHARDS - CALLED FOR THE "CHRISTENING OF A NEW SCIENCE" "AEKOLOGY" (ECOLOGY)

SCIENCE IN THE LATIN WEST DURING MEDIEVAL AGE (MR. SOTTO)

BARBARIAN INVASION- MIGRATION OF CITIZENS OF ROMAN EMPIRE TO ITS NEIGBORING TRIBES.

LATIN WEST- WESTERN EUROPE UNITED BY THE LANGUAGE AND EUROPEAN CULTURE.

MIGRATION OR BARBARIAN INVASION

DE URBANIZATION- NEGATIVE EFFECT OF THE FALL OF ROMAN EMPIRE

STUDY OF NATIVE WAS PURSUED MORE FOR PRACTICAL REASON THAN AN ABSTRACT INQUIRY.

EDUCATIONAL REFORM (CHARLES THE GREAT)

7 LIBERAL ARTS

-TRIVIUM (LITERARY EDUCATION) ( RHETORIC, GRAMMAR, DIALECTIC)

-QUADRIVIUM (SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION) (ARITHMETIC, GEOMETRY, MUSIC, ASTRONOMY)

• BIRTH OF MEDIEVAL UNIVERSITIES
• REDISCOVERY OF THE WORKS OF ARISTOTLE
• LATIN TRANSLATION OF THE MAIN WORKS OF ARISTOTLE
• LATIN TRANSLATION OF THE MAIN WORKS OF ANCIENT PHILOSOPHERS AND THINKERS
• GROSSETESTZ (OXFORD FRANCISCAN SCHOOL)
• ARISTOTLE'S DUAL PATH OF REASONING (RESOLUTION AND COMPOSITION)
• FROM PARTICULAR OBSERVATION TO UNIVERSAL LAW VV.)

SCIENTIST

• BACON OBSERVATION, HYPOTHESIS, EXPERIMENTATION AND VERIFICATION
• WILLIAM OF OCCAM (PRINCIPLE OF PARSIMONY)
• JEAN BURIDAN (BRILLIANT ART MASTER OF MA) "THEORY OF IMPETUS"
• THOMAS BRADWARDINE- DISTINGUISHED DYNAMICS TO KINEMATICS, INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY, MEAN SPEED THEOREM
• NICOLE ORESME- POLISHED THE HELIOCENTRIC THEORY; OPTICS
• BLACK DEATH (MID 14TH CENTURY)
• CATHOLIC CHURCH DISINTEGRATION (PAPACY)

RENAISSANCE (MS. ISRAILA)

RENAISSANCE

· Is the period of “rebirth” as age of preparation for the 17^th century of scientific developments and achievements that began in about 1400 in Italy and spread rapidly over most of Europe.

· New approaches to science were introduced. Scientist began to observed carefully, to measure and experiment in studying natural phenomena.

· 16^th century-Start of studying science by observation and experimentation.

· 17^th century-The movement became a complete scientific revolution.

*ESTABLISHMENT OF ACADEMIES

The Academia Dei Lincei in Rome (1603-1630)

The Academia Del Cimiento in Florence (1657-1667)

The Royal Society in London (1662)

The Academie Des Sciences in Paris (1666)

*BOOKS OF JOURNAL

Journal Des Savants of Paris (1665)

Acta Eruditorum of Leipzig (1682)

*GREAT TREATISES

Principia mathematica of Sir Isaac Newton (1687)

Traite De La Lumiere of Christian Huygens (1690)

*REMARKABLE SCIENTIST DURING RENAISSANCE

Johann Gutenberg (1450)-The invention of printing press

German Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa (1401-64)-The Latin Exponent of the value of experiment, whose recorded careful experiment on a growing plant, providing that it absorbs something from the air, is the first formal biological experiment and the first experimental proof that air has weight.

NICHOLAS COPERNICUS (1453-1543) - Developed heliocentric theory using Scientific method.

LEONARDO DA VINCI (1452-1519)- He considered as the greatest artist of his time and was it’s the greatest scientific exponent

ANDRES VESALIUS (1514- 1564) - He wrote one of the first accurate books on human anatomy, De Humani Corporis Fabrica. Founder of modern human anatomy.

*THE NEW STATUS OF THE GREEK SCIENCE

Ø The renaissance saw the revival of platonic thoughts

Ø 1550 an accumulation of biological works based on Aristotle tended to confirm him as “THE MASTER OF THOSE THAT KNOW” in that particular Field.

Ø SIMON STEVINUS-Introduced the decimal fraction

Ø GALILEO GALILEI (1564-16420)-an astronomer who made telescope

Ø JOHANNES KEPLER (1571-1630)-Theorized about the movement of the Planets.

Ø RENE DESCARTES-The inventor of the graph who believed in god’s Existence.

Ø PARACELSUS-Alchemist and Physician of the renaissance. Added a third elements “salt” to make a trinity of alchemical elements.

Ø FRANCIS BACON-Improvised the scientific method w/c was based on trial and error.

Ø SIR ISAAC NEWTON-Discovered the gravity.

*NATURE OF EUROPEAN SCIENCE

Ø Owes its past successes and its special character to its sharing, in its Metaphysics and method.

Ø The basics features of European society where aggressive cooperation for a common good.

*SCIENCE DURING THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Ø An industrial revolution began that transformed Europe from Agrarian to urban society towards the end of the 18^th century.

Medical advancements in the 20th/21st Century

• 1900’s
  • First electrocardiograph machine

• 1920’s
  • First modern respirator

• 1930’s
  • Artificial pacemaker invented
  • Kouwenhoven cardiovascular research

• 1940’s
  • First kidney dialysis machine
  • Plastic contact lens created

• 1950’s
  • First artificial hip replacement
  • Artificial heart valve developed
  • First cardiac pacemaker
  • First successful open-heart bypass surgery
  • First human kidney transplant

• 1960’s
  • First totally internal pacemaker
  • Laser treatments made available for optic purposes
  • ICU was administered
  • Nuclear machine

• 1970’s
  • Soft contact lens
  • Physical therapy
  • CT scan introduced
  • First cochlear implant surgery

• 1980’s
  • MRI scanners
  • First permanent artificial heart implant
  • Deep-brain electrical stimulation system
  • First laser surgery on human cornea

• 1990’s
  • Human Genome Project
  • Radiosurgery created
  • Brachytherapy Remote Afterloader used to dissolve tumors inside-out
  • Stereotactic Needle Biopsy System to diagnose breast cancer

RENAISSANCE PERIOD

The Renaissance era encompasses Western music history from 1400 to the begining of the 1600’s. This period in time marked the rebirth of humanism, and the revival of cultural achievements for their own sake in all forms of art, including music. The word "Renaissance" in itself is defined as a "rebirth"or a "reconstruction".

During this time, artists and musicians produced works that displayed more artistic freedom and individualism. This creativity allowed artists to abandon the stricter ways of the Medieval Era. Their art forms rediscovered the ancient Greek ideals. The great masters of the Renaissance were revered in their own lifetimes (rather than after their deaths), which was different from most of their Medieval predecessors. With the new printing techniques, music and musical ideas were able to be preserved and distributed to the people.

The distinctive musical sounds of the Renaissance era were comprised of a smooth, imitative, polyphonic polyphonic style, as seen in the music of Byrd, Palestrina, and Lassus. While sacred music sacred music remained of great importance, secular music secular music was starting to become increasingly common. Therefore, the polyphonic style was not only used in sacred music, but also in secular madrigals madrigals.

The repertoire of instrumental music also began to grow considerably. New instruments were invented, including two keyboard instruments called the clavichord and virginal. In addition, many existing instruments were enhanced. The lute became the favored instrument of the time period, and it was established as the standard instrument for family music making during the 16th century.

Masses Masses and motets motets were the primary forms for sacred vocal polyphony. These were accompanied by the lute or a small instrumental ensemble or consort. Secular vocal forms included motets, madrigals and songs, while instrumental pieces were usually short polyphonic works or music for dancing.

Renaissance polyphony was harmonious when compared with the Medieval style. Imitation was a method that composers used to make elaborate music more coherent and to give the listener a sense of arrangement. Imitation, where one melodic line shares, or "imitates," the same musical theme as a previous melodic line became an important polyphonic technique. Imitative polyphony can be easily heard in the music of Byrd, Gibbons, and Gabrieli. Additionally, the masses and motets of composers such as Josquin also displayed the imitative polyphonic style. Imitative polyphony was so important that it continued into the Baroque period, especially in sacred music for the church.

Where does the naming Milky Way for our Galaxy come from? Do you know who introduced this wording and why?

The name Milky Way refers to the milky patch of sky which rings the Earth. You may have seen it if you live outside of a big city, it looks almost like very tenuous clouds to the naked eye. It was named in prehistory before anyone really knew what it was, so just called the "Milky Way" for its appearance. It wasn't until Gallileo looked at an area of it with his telescope in the 1600s that it was realised that the Milky Way was made up of thousands of individual stars, and it was even later that it was realised that what we are looking at is an edge on view of our own galaxy, one of billions in the universe.

An interesting fact related to this is that the word galaxy actually comes from the Greek word, galactos for milk! The Latin version of Milky Way is Via Lactea, with "Via" meaning "Way" or "Road" and "Lactea" meaning "Milk".

The outer Milky Way's exotic origin

A collision between another galaxy and our own 5 billion years ago may have spawned the stars in the outer Milky Way, say astronomers at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. The collision triggered the birth of stars with unique elemental abundances.

David Yong, Bruce Carney, and Maria Luísa Teixera de Almeida discovered the unusual chemical signature when they observed four open star clusters. The star clusters — Berkeley 20 and NGC 2141 in Orion, Berkeley 29 in Gemini, and Berkeley 31 in Monoceros — all reside in the Milky Way's outer disk, 38,000 to 73,000 light-years from the galactic center. The Sun lies in the disk, too, but only 27,000 light-years from the center.

Astronomers have long known the abundance of iron varies from place to place in the Milky Way. In particular, within the disk, the farther a star is from the galactic center, the lower its iron abundance tends to be.

However, Yong and his colleagues found that beyond about 40,000 light-years from the galaxy's center, the disk's iron abundance stops dropping. Instead, the clusters' iron content hits a "basement" at about 30 percent of the Sun's and then holds steady at greater distances.

The astronomers also find the three outermost star clusters have high levels of oxygen and magnesium relative to iron. Oxygen and magnesium originate in short-lived, high-mass stars such as Rigel and Antares, which eject these elements into the galaxy when they explode as supernovae.

The three outermost clusters are about as old as the Sun. This age, together with their iron, oxygen, and magnesium abundances, makes them unique: No known stellar population in the Milky Way has all these properties, and neither do the dwarf galaxies that revolve around it. Thus, Yong and his colleagues suggest the star clusters may owe their existence to an intruder galaxy — one that merged with the Milky Way billions of years ago.

They imagine this intruder skirted the Milky Way's disk in the same direction it spins. As the two galaxies gradually merged, the intruder spilled its stars and gas into the outer Milky Way. Both by stirring up the gas in the outer disk and by smashing its own gas into the Milky Way's, the intruder stimulated a burst of star formation in our galaxy's disk that created at least three of the clusters the astronomers observed.

This gas was slightly poor in iron, explaining the moderately low iron content of the clusters. As short-lived massive stars exploded, they distributed oxygen and magnesium but little iron, which explains why the clusters the astronomers observed show high oxygen-to-iron and magnesium-to-iron ratios.

Unlike oxygen and magnesium, iron comes mostly from white dwarfs, which take much longer to form and explode only under special circumstances. But because star formation occurred in a burst, triggered by the intruder galaxy, it didn't last long — it was over before white dwarfs could add iron to the gas that was creating the new stars.

"I think it's a very important contribution to the field," says Eileen Friel of the National Science Foundation and an expert on old open star clusters. "Whether the clusters were formed during the merger event or whether they were part of the galaxy that might have merged with the Milky Way is still an open question. But using chemical tagging to sort through very complex stellar populations offers enormous potential, and it's really neat to see it being used in the outer disk, in areas that we haven't been able to probe yet."

If a galactic collision did produce the Milky Way's outer disk, it likely happened about 5 billion years ago — shortly before the Sun and Earth were born. That's because the three outermost star clusters Yong's team studied are 4.3 to 5.3 billion years old.

The new work dovetails with recent findings about the fringes of the Milky Way and Andromeda. In 2003, other astronomers discovered a small galaxy in Canis Major that's colliding with the Milky Way's outer disk. And just last week, astronomers reported an enormous disk of stars on the outskirts of the Andromeda Galaxy. The newfound disk likely represents the wreckage of smaller galaxies.

WHAT ARE QUASARS?

The arrow points to a quasar at redshift 6.2 discovered by SDSS

As you can see, the third spectrum differs greatly from the first two. It is the spectrum of a quasar.

Quasars are so far away that most look like single bright points in the sky - just like normal stars. This is why Photo usually classifies them as stars. To tell the difference between a very distant quasar and a relatively close star, you need to look at other things beside its image, such its colors or its spectrum.

The word "quasar" originally stood for "quasi-stellar radio source." Although quasars were originally discovered due to their radio emissions, only about 10% of quasars have substantial radio emissions. These quasars are now called radio loud quasars. Quasars without strong radio emissions are called radio quiet quasars. Researchers are still trying to determine what makes a quasar radio loud or radio quiet.

All quasars have a substantial redshifts in their spectra. As you learned in the Hubble Diagram project, objects that move away from us have their light shifted toward the red end of the spectrum. The familiar spectral lines seen in most stars and galaxies are frequently redshifted too far into the infrared for us to see. Spectral lines that were too far in the ultraviolet for us to detect in nearby objects move into the visible portion of the spectrum of a quasar.

PHILOSOPHY

• is a thinking which aim at a maximum connected to the truth about all available experiences.
• a science of theory of knowledge.
• formulated ideas base from science.

Science and Philosophy differs in:

1. scope
2. approach
3. nature

Function:

1. to carefully examine and criticize the premises and conclusion of all sciences.
2. to synthesized findings
3. to harmonized and bring this in other sciences together.

Two Major Categories of Philosophy

Theoretical Philosophy- directs itself to knowing things without thinking of its application.

• metaphysis
• ontology
• cosmology
• theodicy
• psychology
• epistemology

Practical Philosophy- directs its concern to things which are useful

• semantics
• logic
• ethics
• axiology
• aesthetics

SCIENCE IN GREEK & ROMAN CIVILIZATION

A. Greek Civilization

- emerged around 1100 BC. Early Greeks have been fully developed basic elements of mathematics, astronomy, physics, geography & medicine.

B. Person who give contribution on the development of Science.

1. Thales - matter was composed of convertible into water.
2. Hippocrates - father of Medicine.
3. Aristotle - classifications of plants and animals.
4. Phythagoras - phythagorean theorem.
5. Archimedes - principles of lever & pulley.
6. Ptolemy - geocentric theory.

C. Roman Civilization

- time of Julius Ceasar, it is said that roman are poorscience but contributed a lot is the field of infrastructure.

D. Romans that gives contributions in the field of Science.

1. Pliny the Elder - only roman scientist that is educated and celebrated.
2. Galen - wrote 180 books of medicine.
3. Cleopatra - Roman queen who uses cosmetics.

AXIOM AND THEOREM

-axiom or postulae is a proposition that is not proved

-theorem is a statement w/c has been proven

-axiomatic system is a set of system

Characteristics of Axiomatic system

• independent
• complete
• consistent

DEFINITION

-the statement of the essental properties of a certain thing.

Kinds:

1. lexical
2. extentional
3. intentional
4. contextual
5. stipulative
6. ostenive
7. precising
8. operational

CLASSIFICATION

-distinction, identification, and organization of two or more items or object.

Plato's theory of Universals

1. universalia in re- universals in the thing
2. universalia ante rem- universalia before the things
3. universalia post rem- universalia after the things

Four different types of similarity

• genetic similarity
• structural similarity
• functional similarity
• apparent similarity

LANGUAGE

-an abstract system of word meaning and symbol of all aspect of culure. It includes speech written character, numerals, and symbols, gesturs etc.

Ingredients of situation

• object
• sign
• interpreter